Реферат на тему Lexical and grammatical valency of words. Collocations.

Содержание:

INTRODUCTION 3
1. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL VALENCY OF WORDS 6
2. COLLOCATIONS 7
CONCLUSION 12
REFERENCES 13

Введение:

A word-group is the largest two-facet lexical unit comprising more than one word but expressing one global concept. The lexical meaning of the word groups is the combined lexical meaning of the component words. The meaning of the word groups is motivated by the meanings of the component members and is supported by the structural pattern [3]. However, it is not a mere sum total of all these meanings!
Polysemantic words are used in word groups only in one of their meanings. These meanings of the component words in such word groups are mutually interdependent and inseparable (blind man – “a human being unable to see”, blind type – “the copy isn’t readable”).
Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. One must recall that lexicology deals with words, word-forming morphemes and word-groups.
Word-groups – words put together to form lexical units make up phrases or word-groups. Come dew to lexical and grammatical valency of the components.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. Some word-groups, e.g. at least, point of view, by means, to take place, etc. seem to be functionally and semantically inseparable. They are usually described as set phrases, word-equivalents or phraseological units and are studied by the branch of lexicology, which is known as phraseology. In other word-groups such as to take lessons, kind to people, a week ago, the component-members seem to possess greater semantic and structural independence. Word-groups of this type are define as free word-groups or phrases and are studied in syntax.
Before discussing phraseology it is necessary to outline the features common to various word-groups irrespective of the degree of structural and semantic cohesion of the component-words. Like atoms, words tend not to occur in isolation but to combine with other words to form larger units: the number and type of other elements with which a word can occur is a very important part of its grammar. As with atoms, the ability of words to combine in this way with other words is called valency.
Valency or complementation, as it is often called, is an important area of the description of English, one which is on the boundaries of lexis and grammar, and as such has been dealt with in grammars and dictionaries of English [1].
Every language has its established valency norms, its types of word combinations, groups of words able to form such combinations. This especially concerns traditional, obligatory combinations while individual combinations give greater scope to translators. Individual collocability is by no means arbitrary and must not violate the existing models of valency. As a writer may bring out a potential meaning of some word he is also able to produce unexpected combinations. Such individual but linguistically justifiable collocations belong to the writer’s individual style in the way as his epithets or metaphors and may be regarded as an effective stylistic device.
Words traditionally collocated tend to constitute clichés, e.g. a bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. the translator is to find similar TL clichés, traditional collocations.
The key word in such collocations is a noun, both semantically and structurally, while the modifying adjective plays a subordinate role. The key word is always preserved in translation but the collocated adjective is rendered by a word possessing a different referential meaning which expresses the same category (in this case – intensity) and corresponds to the TL valency norms. For example: a bad mistake – грубая ошибка, a bad headache – сильная головная боль, a bаd debt – невозвращенный долг, a bad accident –сложный несчастный случай,a bad wound – тяжелая рана, a bad egg – тухлое яйцо, a bad apple – гнилое яблоко.
Traditional usage of words of word combinations is typical of each language.
Traditional S.L. and T.L. usage or clichés do not coincide. The words forming such clichés often have different meanings in the two language but they are traditionally used to describe similar situations.
The problem of the proper selection of equivalent words and clichés can be solved only if the peculiarities of the correlated languages are taken into consideration, e.g. He is survived by his wife, a son and a daughter. — Он оставил после себя жену, сына и дочь.
Sometimes different usage is partly due to different vision: The city is built on terrace rising from the lake. — Город построен на террасах, спускающихся к озеру.
As a matter of fact the two verbs (to rise and стускаться) may be called conversives, that is, they describe the same situation from diametrically opposite angles.
Usage is closely linked with the history and development of the language, of its lexical system. Hence every language creates peculiar clichés, ready-made formulae. They are never violated by the introduction of additional words or by the substitution of their components.
There are two factors which are important in uniting words into word-groups: the lexical valency of words; the grammatical valency of words.

Заключение:

Collocability implies the ability of a lexical unit to combine with other lexical units, with other words or lexical groups. It should be noted that valency comprises all levels of language – its phonological, syntactical and lexical levels. Only lexical valency will be considered here.
A detailed analysis of factual material shows that valency in the English language is broader and more flexible than that in the Russian language. This fact confronts the translator with additional difficulties, as it enables a writer to use unexpected individual combinations. It follows that valency may be obligatory and non-obligatory and words accordingly fall into two categories: “open” or discrete words and “closed” or non-discrete ones.
Collocation is the systematic relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a common expression. The collocated items should not always be in a consecutive arrangement.

Фрагмент текста работы:

1. LEXICAL AND GRAMMATICAL VALENCY OF WORDS

Restriction of the lexical valency are to be accounted for by the inner structure of the vocabulary of the English language.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its lexical valency.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. E.g., the noun question is often combined with such adjectives as vital, pressing, urgent, delicate, etc.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency. The range of the lexical valency of words is delimited by the inner structure of the English words [3, p. 112].
Thus, to raise and to lift are synonyms, but only the former is collocated with the noun question. The verbs to take, to catch, to seize, to grasp are synonyms, but they are found in different collocations: to take – exams, measures, precautions, etc.; to grasp – the truth, the meaning.
Words habitually collocated in speech tend to form a cliche.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical, because as it was said before, it depends on the inner structure of the vocabulary of the language.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various grammatical structures. Restriction of the grammatical valency are to be accounted for by the grammatical structure of the language. The range of the grammatical valency of the word is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to [3, p.114].
The minimal grammatical context in which the words are used to form word-groups is usually described as the pattern of the word-group.
E.g., the adjective heavy can be followed by a noun (A+N) — heavy food, heavy storm, heavy box, heavy eater. But we can¬not say «heavy cheese » or «heavy to lift, to carry», etc.
The grammatical valency of words may be different. The grammatical valency is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. E.g., no Eng¬lish adjective can be followed by the finite form of a verb.
Then, the grammatical valency is also delimited by the inner structure of the language. E.g., to suggest, to propose are synonyms.
Both can be followed by a noun, but only to propose can be followed by the infinitive of a verb — to propose to do something.
Clever and intelligent have the same grammatical valency, but only clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern A+prep+N — clever at maths.