Курсовая теория на тему Языки аналитического и синтетического строя /Analytic and synthetic language systems

Содержание:

Introduction 3
Chapter 1. Grammar peculiarities of language typology 4
1.1 Morphological classification of languages 4
1.2 Semantic peculiarities of typological systems 9
Chapter 2. Word-formation in languages of analytical and synthetic system 15
2.1 Word-formation in English 15
2.2 Word-formation in German as a synthetic language 19
Conclusion 29
References 30

Введение:

The developing of a language is closely related to the history of the Society. Social processes have an impact on the changing of the external level of languages and a structure of a national language in the ratio as forms of its existence and social strata. Nowadays international cooperation is actively developing. The cultural process which is proceeding in the world contributes to studying all European languages. The knowledge of several foreign languages helps for example a student to communicate with speakers from other countries, to find a prestige job and culture exchanging.
The relevance of the study is to serve as a reference material to subsequent studies in analytical and synthetic languages in their various components of linguistic structures. The study would also add to the research findings and meta-theory in linguistics thus, contributing to the current trend of intellectualism from the point of view of language. The work also attempts to enumerate and compare some of the word-formation processes in English and German, such as acronyms, affixation, alternation, backformation, blending, borrowing, clipping, coinage, compounding, and reduplication. A sample descriptive approach was employed in the analysis of the data collected for this research.
The aim – to identify similarities and differences of word-formation of nouns between English and German languages.
Objects of the Course paper – the word-formation in English and German languages.
Subjects – nouns in English and German languages.
Tasks:
– to discover the morphological classification of languages;
– to characterize semantic peculiarities of typological systems;
– to describe word-formation in English and German Languages.
Methods of the study:
– analysis of the literature which is dedicated to this issue;
– synthesis and systematization of information.

Заключение:

Thus, the typological classification of languages considers languages of synthetic and analytical systems. The former is characterized by the fact that, along with the use of official words, word order and intonation, a large role belongs to the forms of words formed with the help of affixes — flexions and form-building suffixes and prefixes. The latter involves a wider use of official words, phonetic means and word order to form words, phrases and sentences. The languages of the analytical order are English, French, Italian, Spanish, Persian, Bulgarian and some other Indo-European languages.
In this course paper the category “noun” in two languages was investigated. In this course paper nouns as expressions of social power were analyzed, the similarities and differences of grammatical categories of noun in English and in German languages were investigated. German as English differs two numbers. The classification of nouns in these two languages is similar; there are two classes: proper nouns and common nouns, but in English this classification narrows (class nouns, collective nouns, material nouns, abstract nouns). German as English differs also the value of singular and plural seems self-evident. Nouns have two cases: «ordinary» and «possessive» mother (general case), maternal (possessive).
As compound words are formed from two words and eventually give a new lexical unit, very often compound words mean complex nouns. But this is not entirely true, because among the compound words there are also adjectives, for example: fire-resistant (fire-resistant), high-speed (high-speed), and so on. As for the spelling of English compound words, there are several options: merged, separated and hyphenated should be said that the choice between the two opposite points of view as to the category of case in English continues a matter of linguistic access. From the points of view of inflectional morphology is obvious the insufficiency of «prepositional declension».

Фрагмент текста работы:

Chapter 1. Grammar peculiarities of language typology

1.1 Morphological classification of languages
Typological classification of languages emerged on the basis of morphological data, regardless of genetic or spatial proximity, based solely on the properties of the language structure. Typological classification of languages seeks to cover the material of all languages of the world, reflects their similarities and differences, and at the same time reveals possible language types and specific features of each language or group of typologically similar languages. Modern typological classification based on data not only morphology, but also phonology, syntax, semantics. The basis for the inclusion of language in the typological classification is the type of language − the characteristic of the fundamental properties of its structure. However, the type is not implemented in the language absolutely; in reality, there are several types in each language, that is, each language is polytypological. Therefore, it is appropriate to say to what extent a particular type is present in the structure of a given language; on this basis, attempts are being made to give a quantitative interpretation of the typological characteristics of the language. The main problem for typological classification is the creation of descriptions of languages, sustained in a single terminology and based on a single concept of language structure and a system of consistent and sufficient criteria of a typological description. The following typological classification is most widely accepted: insulating (amorphous) type — unchangeable words with grammatical significance of word order, weak opposition of significant and service roots (for example, ancient Chinese, Vietnamese, Yoruba); agglutinative type — a developed system of unambiguous affixes, the absence of grammatical alternations in the root, the same type of inflection for all words belonging to one part of speech, a weak connection (presence of distinct borders) between morphs (for example, many Finno-Ugric languages, Turkic languages, Bantu languages); inflectional type combines languages with internal inflection, that is, with grammatically significant alternation at the root (Semitic languages), and languages with external inflection, fusion − with simultaneous expression of several grammatical meanings with one affix (for example, hands — instrumental case, plural), a strong connection (lack of distinct boundaries) between morphs and different types of declensions and conjugations (to some extent — Somali, Estonian). In the ancient and some modern Indo-European languages, internal inflection and fusion are combined. A number of typologists identify incorporating (polysynthetic) languages where there are “word-sentences”, complex complexes: the verbal form includes (sometimes in a truncated form) nominal bases corresponding to the object and circumstances, the subject, as well as some grammatical indicators (for example, some languages of American Indians, some Asian and Caucasian languages). This fundamentally morphological typological classification cannot be considered final mainly because of its inability to reflect all the specifics of a particular language in view of its structure. But it contains in an implicit form the possibility of clarifying it by analyzing other spheres of the language. For example, in insulating languages such as classical Chinese, Vietnamese, and Guinean, there is a monosyllabic word equal to a morpheme, the presence of polythony, and a number of other interrelated characteristics.
Languages can be classified not only according to their origin from one common ancestor language, but also based on the characteristics of their morphological structure. This classification is called morphological. Basic concepts of morphological typology includes: fusion, agglutination, inflection, incorporation. There are two main types of morphemic device words: fusion (from the Latin. Fusio) and agglutination (lat. Agglutinatio — gluing). In the fusional word the boundaries between the morphemes are indistinct, sometimes they pass inside the sound, (for example, in Russian in the word стричь in sound [ч] the last sound of the root and the first consonant of the infinitive indicator — [ти] have merged), sometimes some parts of the morphemes are not viewed at all (принять, взять). For the fusional word it is characteristic that the service morphemes simultaneously express several grammatical meanings. For example, in Russian word стена flexion a has three meanings: the feminine gender, the nominative case, the singular number. The fusion is common in Indo-European and Semitic languages. Among the fusional languages there are both synthetic (ancient Greek, Latin, Slavic, German) and analytical (English, French, etc.). Thus, the noun in Modern English has only two grammatical categories, number and case. And the distinctive feature of the English article is that it is connected not only with the case, but also with the genus and the definite article also with the number. Consequently, it is possible to conclude: the English article is more independent in its expression, which greatly expands and enriches both its own semantic structure and the possibility of its functional use in speech. The existence of case appears to be doubtful and has to be carefully analyzed. The Modern English noun certainly has not got the category of grammatical gender, which is to be found, for example, in Russian, French, German and Latin. Not a single noun in Modern English shows any peculiarities in its morphology due to its denoting a male or a female being. Thus, the words husband and wife do not show any difference in their forms due to the peculiarities of their lexical meanings.
In an agglutinative word the boundaries between morphemes are quite distinct: each affix has only one meaning, and each meaning is always expressed by one affix. The complete definiteness of the meaning and form of any morpheme, characteristic of agglutination determines that in agglutinative languages all morphemes have a greater psychological reality for the speakers: they are better separated, more precisely semantized, and live in the minds of the speakers more as if by themselves (while in fusional languages, even root morphemes are not always recognized by speakers, and some of them are inseparable from affixes). Since under conditions of agglutination all morphemes have greater autonomy, in agglutinative languages the opposition between root and affixal morphemes is less significant than in fusional morphemes, and opposition to derivational and relational morphemes, i.e. suffix-prefixes, on the one hand, and endings, on the other hand, are completely irrelevant. The structure of the agglutinative word is transparent and quite rational. It is no coincidence that in Esperanto the words are arranged precisely agglutinatively.The principles and logic of agglutination are widely used in the creation of modern terms.
Agglutinative languages in their grammatical structure are more stable than fusional languages. This is due to the fact that the agglutinative word, with its unambiguous and standard-shaped affixes, with clear morphemic boundaries, is not characterized by the processes of simplification, re-decomposition, leading to the loss of motivation of signs and the search for new signs. There are much more agglutinative languages on Earth than fusional ones: these are all the languages of the Altai macro family, all languages of the Turkic, Dravidian families, all Bantu languages, all Australian languages, most of the Indian languages, some Finno-Ugric, Georgian, Japanese, Korean, etc. Agglutinative technology is used both in synthetic and polysynthetic languages, as well as in analytical and isolating languages.
Characteristics of a language in terms of morphological typology is the most important, perhaps the most informative characteristic of the device of a given language as a whole. The type of the morphology of the word corresponds with some essential features of the sound and syntactic organization of the language. Four main types of languages (isolating, agglutinative, fusional and alternating) differ not only in the morphological structure of the word, but also in the essential phonetic-syntactic originality of the syntagmas (the term “syntagma” means compounds of words or connections of morphemes in a word expressing syntactic meanings). In particular, for the isolating (extremely analytical) languages are characterized:
1) musical stress;
2) semantically meaningful synergy (i.e., the division of speech into syllables coincides with the morphemic segmentation of speech);
3) maximum (in comparison with other types of languages) freedom to construct syntagmas;
4) lack of autonomy, word separation (a simple word is sometimes indistinguishable from a morpheme, a compound word is from a syntagma). Therefore, when describing these languages, the term «word» is superfluous, isolating languages are non-verbal in nature.
For a word in agglutinative languages, the following are characteristic: 1) the maximum degree of semantic independence and formal definiteness of affixes (including their “independence” and separateness in the speakers’ language consciousness); 2) the greatest freedom of the structure of the word with a large load of word forms with separate grammatical, including syntactic meanings; 3) syngramism (uniform vocalization) of the word, necessary as a cementing agent, which ensures the integrity and separateness of the agglutinative word form.
The words in inflectional (fusional) languages are characterized by: 1) a high degree of semantic and formal fusion of the structural components of the word (grammatical ambiguity of affixes; assimilative interaction of affixes); 2) binary and sharp asymmetry of the semantic structure of the word: the basis of the word acts as a carrier of “real”, more specific, as well as constant lexical and grammatical meanings for a given word, while the endings express mainly syntactic and other changing meanings.
The alternating languages are characterized by: 1) the maximally welded structure of the word: in fact, the word here appears as a morphologically indecomposable whole, often consisting of a single root; 2) a limited number of vowels; 3) a sharp functional difference between consonants and vowels in the structure of a word: consonants are the expression of real meaning, and vowels alternating between consonants perform syntactic functions.
Thus, on the one hand, there are significant correspondences between the type of morphological structure of a word, and on the other hand, between some typologically significant features affecting the syntactic and phonological levels of languages.