Курсовая теория на тему Antithesis and its functions in English

Содержание:

Introduction. 3

Chapter 1. The concept and
characteristics of the antithesis as a stylistic figure. 6

1.1. The concept of stylistic
figures. 6

1.2. Definition of the antithesis 11

Chapter 2. Analysis of the
antithesis in the aphorisms of the English language. 16

2.1. Characteristics of aphorisms 16

2.2. The functions of the antithesis
in the aphorisms of the English language. 21

Conclusion. 28

Bibliography. 30

Application. 32

Введение:

For the
first time, the term "aphorism" was included in the title of the
Hippocratic medical treatise. With the invention of writing and printing,
aphorisms are formed into thematic and author’s collections. With all the
diversity of the aphoristic genre, it is possible to distinguish the structures
favored in English aphoristics — these are judgments that differ in parallel
constructions, in which antithetical and proportional oppositions are realized,
and reverse parallelism — chiasm. These structural types are characterized by
binomiality, rhythmic equivalence, and symmetry. The collected material shows
that in the same way as in the IA, in most cases it is possible to preserve the
structural construction of the aphorism. The reproduction of these features of
the grammatical construction of the aphorism is of particular importance for
the quality of translation, since they are stylistically significant and
contribute to the compression of information in the aphorism. The problems
associated with the antithesis are actively being developed by many
researchers: I.B. Golub [Golub 2002], A.P. Chudinov [Chudinov 1998], I.V.
Arnold [Arnold 2002], I.R. Galperin [Galperin 1958] and others. They
distinguish the antithesis as a stylistic figure, separating it from the
tropes, while the boundary of such separation is often unclear.

In our
opinion, the most accurate formulation of the concept of "aphorism"
is as follows: "an aphorism is a microtext of a generalizing nature."

It seems
relevant to describe the syntactic features of aphorisms, their similarities
and differences with closely related phenomena. The relevance of the work is
determined by the importance of the problem of perception of aphorisms
containing an antithesis in the construction in order to study them as fully
and comprehensively as possible in the interests of the theory of intercultural
communication.

The purpose
of the study is to study the antithesis of the English language.

Tasks:

— to
consider the concept of "tropes" and "figure of speech", to
classify and describe their types, to distinguish the antithesis from stylistic
figures, to characterize.

— to
characterize aphorisms, to determine their place in the circle of closely
related phenomena; to select aphorisms, classify and systematize the selected
corpus of units, to identify and analyze difficulties encountered in
translating aphorisms from English into Russian.

The object
of the study is the use of antitheses selected from the aphorisms of
English-speaking authors of different eras.

The
research material was 100 aphorisms selected by a continuous sampling method
from the pages of the Internet and the most popular encyclopedias and
collections.

The
scientific novelty and theoretical significance of this study lies in the fact
that the antithesis is studied from the point of view of the theory and
practice of the English language. It is also important to clarify some
theoretical issues related to the translation of parallel constructions.

The
practical value of this bachelor’s work lies in the fact that the materials and
conclusions can be used in the study of the theory and practice of translation,
stylistics, general and private linguistics, as well as contribute to a more
meaningful practical language learning based on understanding the differences
existing in different languages and cultures. Solving the problem of adequate
transmission of aphorism as an important genre, often reflecting the
development of a nation in a certain period.

The
structure of the work. The work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a
conclusion, a list of references and an appendix.

The
introduction substantiates the relevance of the research, its scientific
novelty, theoretical and practical significance, defines the goals and
objectives of the work.

In the
first chapter, the concepts of "tropes", "stylistic
figures", "antithesis" are studied, various types and examples
of justified use are discussed, differences between antithesis and other
closely related phenomena are revealed.

The second
chapter defines the criteria for selecting aphorisms from various collections,
systematizes the selected aphorisms in accordance with existing
classifications, analyzes the selected units.

The
conclusion contains the main conclusions on the topic of the study.

Заключение:

The term
itself originated in the early nineteenth century. mainly in the works of
German romantics and already in the middle of the same century, an attempt is
made to substantiate stylistics (the philosophy of style by Herbert Spencer
(1852) and Heyman Steinthal (1866)).

The
foundations of stylistics were laid in the works of A. A. Potebni and A.
N.Veselovsky ("From the History of the epithet").

In a
narrower sense (as an arrangement of linguistic elements, starting from a
morpheme and ending with a whole sentence), this section of linguistics was
applied by American descriptive linguistics (40-50-ies of the 20th century).

In a
broader sense, the style has been understood by modern linguistics of the
English language. At the same time, such conjugated terms as variability,
freedom of choice of forms and methods, were severely infringed upon by the
author of the text or the speaker, so she identified herself more with the
grammar (style of the text).

As a
doctrine of comparing text with non-textual subsystems of language
("code", common language, etc.), the style was historically developed
by representatives of the Prague Language School much earlier (30-40s of the
20th century). As a rule, a speech act (oral or written) is understood as the
result of the speaker’s choice of certain language forms among the
possibilities previously offered by the language (grammatical, syntactic,
phonetic, lexical). And, of course, as a combination within the framework of a
speech act, depending on its "function".

The basis
of such an interpretation of stylistics was the concept of a
"functional" ("communicative") style of speech. This was
included in Charles Bally’s concept: the language has concentrated synonymous
forms together with their rows, one of which is a "neutral
background", and the rest differ in varying degrees of additional color
scheme.

Die
vorangehende Reflexion verfolgte u.a. das Ziel, die Charakteristika der
aphoristischen Texte als invariante Größen zu hinterfragen, ohne freilich diese
Problematik erschöpfend behandeln zu können. Die wichtigsten, eingangs
aufgezählten Merkmale der Aphorismen sind dabei immer Gegenstand einer
translatorischen Abwägung. Krzysztof Lipiński hält sich nie bedenkenlos an eine
von vornherein bestimmte Strategie, auch nicht an eine Kreativität um ihrer
selbst willen. Auch mit der direkten zielsprachlichen Wiedergabe vermag der
Übersetzer die Indirektheit der Aussage des Aphorismus beizubehalten. Eine gute
Übersetzungsstrategie erweist sich daher als eine, die auf den Einzelfall
abstellt und in welcher das jeweilige Übersetzungsverfahren jedes Mal neu
gewählt oder sogar erst konzipiert werden muss. Auf besondere Weise trifft dies
auf das Œuvre eines Aphoristikers zu, das sich ja immer aus vielen kleinen
Texten zusammensetzt. Die Kreativität kann dabei als Merkmal gar nicht hoch
genug gewürdigt werden. Dies gilt besonders, wenn sie als integraler
Bestandteil einer Strategie verstanden wird, die ihre jeweiligen Entscheidungen
auf die konkreten Herausforderungen abstimmt und gleichzeitig auch die
fakultative Transposition (Kreativität sensu stricto) unterlässt.

Die
Diskussion über Übersetzungsprobleme begründet m.E. auch das Erfordernis,
wichtige Erkenntnisse der Übersetzungsanalyse u.a. in der Übersetzungsdidaktik
und der translationswissenschaftlichen Reflexion zu berücksichtigen. Dies
vermochte auch der Übersetzungswissenschaftler und Übersetzer, Lehrer und
Schriftsteller, Krzysztof Lipiński zu meistern. An dieser Stelle sei Prof.
Krzysztof Lipiński dafür großer Dank ausgesprochen.

Фрагмент текста работы:

Chapter
1. The concept and characteristics of the antithesis as a stylistic figure 1.1.
The concept of stylistic figures Stylistics
is a branch of general linguistics.

It deals
with two interdependent goals [11; p. 17]:

— The study
of special linguistic means that provide the desired effect of utterance – they
are called stylistic techniques (SP) and expressive means (VS). Stylistics
studies the nature, functions and structure of SP and VS;

— The
second area of research is related to certain types of texts, which, due to the
choice and location of language means, differ in the pragmatic aspect of
communication. These types are called functional language styles.

Discussing
this problem, it is impossible not to touch upon the general linguistic issues
of oral and written varieties of language, the concept of literary (standard)
language, constituent texts, etc.

The
emergence of stylistics as an independent separate science of linguistics was
indirectly the result of a long-established tendency of grammarians to
recognize as normal only those sentences, sentences and phrases that were
"well formed", neglecting everything, which did not meet the accepted
standard.

But
language learning cannot exclude these non-standard materials from linguistics.
So, when grammar refuses to analyze anything, stylistics comes into play.
Stylistics as a science has acquired its own tools – expressive means (VS) and
stylistic techniques (SD) [3; p.43].

Stylistics
and other sciences. Information theory. The largest scientists and milestones
in the development of stylistics as a science.

Speaking
about the tasks of stylistics, it should be mentioned about its close
relationships with other sciences and disciplines, such as information theory,
literary criticism, psychology, logic, and even to some extent statistics.

Thus,
stylistics is a science, a branch of linguistics that explores the principles
and results of the selection and use of lexical, grammatical, phonetic and
other linguistic means to convey thoughts and emotions in various circumstances
of communication.

M.
Riffatere (1964): stylistics — linguistics of the impact of a message on the
result of an act of communication, namely its function of attracting attention.
Since the purpose of communication is to convey certain information, we can say
that stylistics borders on information theory. The latter can be of 2 types
[18; p.23]:

—
Denotative – referring to the essence of the statement;

—
Connotative – referring to or reflecting the attitude of the interlocutors to
what is being said and to the conditions of communication. This information
relates to the emotional, expressive, evaluative and functional components of
human speech.

The
description and analysis of stylistics are aimed at exploring the
interdependence and relationship between these 2 types of information contained
in the text. Michael Riffatere expands his definition of stylistics from the
point of view of information theory: "Stylistics is a science that studies
those aspects of an utterance that transmit to the Receptor deciphering the
text the way of thinking peculiar to the Source." This is how the term
"decoding stylistics" appeared. His main theorist in this country was
I.V. Arnold from St. Petersburg University.

Speaking
about the main representatives, initiators and enthusiasts of this science in
the former USSR, we should mention Zhirmunsky (1921), Vinogradov (1923),
Tynyanov (1924) – who published their works in the 1920s.

A number of
events can be called milestones in the development of stylistics [1; p.4]:

— The first
discussion on the problems of style on a large scale was organized by the
journal "Questions of Linguistics" in 1954;

— A style
conference was held at Indiana University in the spring of 1958, followed by
the publication of its materials in 1960, edited by Thomas Sebeok;

— The style
conference was organized at the Moscow State Pedagogical Institute of Foreign
Languages in 1969;

— An
interesting symposium was held in Italy, the materials of which were published
under the editorship of Prof. Chatman in 1971. Two reputable American journals
published at the University of Illinois are regularly published to inform
students and scientists about innovative approaches in the theory and practice
of stylistics – Style, language and style.

Among the
modern Russian scientists who worked in the field of stylistics, we should
mention Galperin, Lotman, Kukharenko, Morokhovsky, etc.

Basic
terms, categories and concepts of stylistics.

To define
the boundaries of stylistics, it is necessary to specify what we mean by its
main term – style. This word is of Latin origin, derived from the word stilus,
which meant a short sharp stick used by the Romans to write on wax tablets. Now
the word "style" is used in many senses, so it has become a constant
source of ambiguity. This may mean [11; p.89]:

—
Correspondence between thought and expression;

—
Individual manner of using the language;

— A set of
rules on how to write a composition – sometimes style is associated with very
simple concepts, such as "style is the person himself" (Buffon of the
18th century).

"Style
is depth," Darbyshire said in 1971 in The Grammar of Style; "style is
a deviation," Enquist believed in his book "Linguistic
Stylistics", published in The Hague in 1973. All these definitions are
somehow related to the essence of style, which is summarized by the following
observations [8; p.42]:

— Style is
a quality of language that accurately conveys emotions or thoughts or their
system peculiar to the author;

— The true
peculiarity of the style is the result of the author’s success in convincing
language corresponding to his way of perception (Middleton Murry);

— Style is
a contextually limited linguistic variation (Enqvist);

— Style is
a set of indistinguishable features of a language (Bloomfield);

— Style is
simply a synonym for form or expression (Benedetto Croce).

In a broad
sense, we understand style as a feature inherent in music, clothing,
architecture, painting, historical epoch, etc.

Archibald
Hill argues that "structures, sequences, and patterns that go beyond or
may go beyond individual sentences define style."

The most
common definition of style belongs to Seymour Chatman: "Style is the
product of individual choice and models of choice among linguistic
possibilities." Werner Winter continues this idea by arguing that a style
can be characterized by a pattern of repeated choices from a list of optional
language functions.

Summing up
these numerous definitions, we can identify features that most scientists agree
with [13; p. 35]:

— Style is
a set of characteristics by which we distinguish one author from another;

— Style is
considered as something that relates exclusively to the plane of expression,
and not to the plane of content.

Individual
style implies the peculiarities of the individual manner of the writer to use
linguistic means to achieve the desired effect. The speech of any individual,
which is characterized by certain elements, is called an idiolect, which
reveals his upbringing and education. The writer will try not to show his
idiolect, instead he will leave room for genuine understanding. Alexander Blok
once said that the writer’s style is so closely connected with the content of
his soul that "an experienced eye can see the soul through his
style."

The
components of an individual style are the following [4; p. 56]:

—
composition of phrasal units;

— rhythm
and melody of utterances;

— image
system;

—
preference for certain stylistic techniques and their correlation with neutral
language means;

— the
interdependence of the linguistic means used by the author and the means
characteristic of his characters.

Discussing
the problem of individual style, it should be clarified from the very beginning
that this problem forms the general basis for literature and literary
stylistics, the latter is part of poetics (the science of the composition of
literary works and the system of aesthetic means used in them).

Thus, I.V.
Arnold notes that the pictorial means of language should be called "all
kinds of figurative use of words, phrases and phonemes, combining all kinds of
figurative names with the general term "trails" [1; p. 46]. A similar
point of view is expressed by I.R. Galperin, who emphasizes that expressive
means include linguistic means with a special stylistic meaning [5; p.26],
whereas stylistic means include those typical structural and/or semantic
features of linguistic units that undergo intentional and conscious
intensification (strengthening) [3; p. 46].

As for
language figures (figures of speech, turns of speech, stylistic figures, means
of speech expressiveness), they are understood as such speech constructions
that give speech stylistic significance, change its emotional coloring. As
Yu.M. Skrebnev writes, for example, in a broad sense, they include any language
means, including tropes that give speech imagery and expressiveness, and in a
narrow sense, syntagmatically formed means of expressiveness [11; p.89].

Despite the
fact that a large number of studies have been devoted to stylistic means, at
the moment, there is no unified system of their classification.

According
to I.R. Galperin’s classification, which is based on a multi-level approach,
three large groups of expressive means and stylistic techniques are
distinguished: phonetic, lexical and syntactic [7; p.39]. As part of the
lexical means proper, the scientist also identifies three subsections
representing different criteria for their selection and different semantic
processes. In this case, the first subsection is divided into the following
groups:

a) means
based on the interaction of dictionary and contextual meanings (metaphor,
metonymy and irony);

b) means
based on the interaction of initial and derived meanings (polysemy, zeugma,
pun, etc.).

c) means
based on the opposite of logical and emotional meanings (epithet, oxymoron, as
well as various interjections and exclamations that have expressiveness).